Bhalisela imidiya yethu yezenhlalo yokuthumela okusheshayo
Emhlabeni ophumelele osheshayo wezobuchwepheshe, ukusetshenziswa kwama-lasers kwenzile kakhulu, kuguqula izimboni ezisebenzisa izimboni ezinjengokusika kwe-laser, ukushisa, ukumaka kanye nokuhlambalaza. Kodwa-ke, lokhu kwandiswa kuveze igebe elibalulekile ekuqwashisweni kwezokuphepha kanye nokuqeqeshwa phakathi konjiniyela kanye nabasebenzi bezobuchwepheshe, kuveze izisebenzi eziningi zangaphambi kwe-laser emisebeni yayo engaba khona. Lo mbhalo uhlose ukuKhanya ngokubaluleka kokuqeqeshwa kwe-laser ukuphepha, imiphumela yemvelo yokuvezwa kwe-laser, kanye nezindlela eziphelele zokuvikela zokuvikela labo abasebenza nge-laser
Isidingo esibucayi sokuqeqeshwa kwe-Laser Security
Ukuqeqeshwa kwe-Laser Security kubaluleke kakhulu ekuphepheni kokusebenza kanye nokusebenza kahle kweLaser Welding kanye nezicelo ezifanayo. Ukukhanya okuphezulu okuphezulu, ukushisa, kanye namagesi angaba yingozi akhiqizwa ngesikhathi sokusebenza kwe-laser kufaka ubungozi bezempilo kubasebenzi. Ukuqeqeshwa Kwezokuphepha kufundisa onjiniyela kanye nabasebenzi ekusetshenzisweni okulungile kwemishini yokuzivikela (i-PPE), njengokuvezwa okuvikelayo kanye nezihlangu zobuso, nokuvikela ukuvikelwa okuqondile kwamehlo nesikhumba sabo.
Ukuqonda izingozi zama-lasers
Imiphumela yemvelo yama-lasers
Ama-Lasers angadala ukulimala okukhulu kwesikhumba, kudinga ukuvikelwa kwesikhumba. Kodwa-ke, ukukhathazeka okuyinhloko kulele ekulimaleni kwamehlo. Ukuvezwa kwe-laser kungaholela emiphumeleni eshisayo, ye-acoustic, kanye ne-photochemical:
I-Thermal:Ukukhiqizwa kokushisa nokumunca kungadala ukushiswa esikhunjeni namehlo.
Acoustic: Imishini yokushaqeka ngemishini kungaholela ekulimazeni kwasendaweni kanye nomonakalo wezicubu.
PhotoCHemical: Ama-wavelength athile angabangela ukusabela kwamakhemikhali, okubangela ama-cataracts, ama-corneal noma ama-retinal ashile, futhi andise ubungozi bomdlavuza wesikhumba.
Imiphumela yesikhumba ingasukela ekuvuthweni okuthe xaxa nobuhlungu ekushisweni kweziqu zesithathu, kuya ngesigaba se-laser, isikhathi sokudla, isilinganiso sokuphindaphinda, kanye ne-wavelength.
| Ububanzi be-Wavengeth | Umphumela we-pathological |
| I-180-315NM (UV-B, UV-C) | I-Photokeratitis ifana nokushiswa yilanga, kepha kwenzeka e-cornea yeso. |
| 315-400nm (UV-a) | I-Photochemical Cataract (ifu lens yamehlo) |
| I-400-780NM (ebonakalayo) | Ukulimala kwe-Photochemical ku-retina, eyaziwa nangokuthi i-retinal burn, yenzeka lapho i-retina ilimele ngokuchayeka ngokukhanya. |
| 780-1400nm (eduze ne-IR) | Cataract, Retain Burn |
| 1.4-3.0μm (Ir) | I-Flare ye-aqued (amaprotheni ehlelweni lamanzi), ikati, ukushiswa kwe-corneal I-Flare enamanzi yilapho amaprotheni avela ehlelweni lokungena elinamanzi. I-cataract inamafu elensi yeso, futhi ukushiswa kwe-corneal kulimaza i-cornea, indawo yangaphambili yamehlo. |
| I-3.0μm-1mm | Ukushiswa kwe-Comeal |
Ukulimala kwamehlo, ukukhathazeka okuphambili, kuyehluka ngokusekelwe kusayizi we-Pupil, i-Pigmentation, isikhathi eside, kanye ne-wavelength. Ama-wavelength ahlukene angena ezingxenyeni zamehlo ahlukahlukene, abangele ukulimala kwe-cornea, lens, noma i-retina. Amandla okugxila kwamehlo akhulisa kakhulu amandla e-retina, okwenza ukudalulwa kwethamo eliphansi kwanele ukudala umonakalo omkhulu, okuholela ekubonakaleni okunciphile noma ubumpumputhe.
Izingozi zesikhumba
Ukuchayeka kwe-laser esikhunjeni kungaholela ekushisweni, ukuqhekeka, ama-blits, kanye nezinguquko ze-pigment, ezingonakalisa izicubu ezingaphansi. Ama-wavelength ahlukene angena ekujuleni okuhlukahlukene ezicubunzisweni zesikhumba.
I-Laser Safety Standard
GB72471.1-2001
I-GB7247.1-2001, enesihloko esithi "Ukuphepha kwemikhiqizo ye-Laser - Ingxenye 1: Ukuhlukaniswa Kwemishini, Izidingo, Umhlahlandlela Wokuhlukaniswa Kwezokuphepha, Izidingo, kanye Neziqondiso zabasebenzisi mayelana nemikhiqizo ye-laser. Leli Zinga laliqaliswa ngoMeyi 1, 2002, lihlose ukuqinisekisa ukuphepha emikhakheni ehlukahlukene lapho kusetshenziswa imikhiqizo ye-Laser, njengasezindaweni zezimboni, ezentengiso, ezisetshenziselwa ezokwelashwa. Kodwa-ke, bekuphangwa yi-GB 7247.1-2012(ChonesStandard) (Ikhodi yeChina) (Openstd).
GB18151-2000
I-GB18151-2000, eyaziwa ngokuthi "onogada be-laser," ibigxile ekucacisweni nasezimfuneko zezikrini zokuvikela ama-laser ezisetshenziselwa ukubopha izindawo ezisebenzayo zemishini yokusebenza ye-laser. Lezi zinyathelo zokuvikela zihlanganisa zombili izixazululo zesikhathi eside nezesikhashana ezinjengamakhethini we-laser nezindonga ukuqinisekisa ukuphepha ngesikhathi sokusebenza. Okujwayelekile, okukhishwe ngoJulayi 2, 2000, futhi kwaqala ukwenziwa ngoJanuwari 2, 2001, kamuva kwathathelwa indawo yi-GB / T 18151-2008-2008. Isebenza ezingxenyeni ezahlukahlukene zezikrini zokuvikela, kufaka phakathi izikrini ezisobala namafasitela, okuhlose ukuhlola futhi zilinganise izakhiwo ezivikelayo zalezi zikrini (Ikhodi yeChina) (Openstd) (Umntu antuIsihlehlukene.
GB18217-2000
I-GB18217-2000, enesihloko esithi "I-Laser Safety Signs," imihlahlandlela esunguliwe yezimo eziyisisekelo, izimpawu, imibala, ubukhulu, imibhalo echazayo, nezindlela zokusebenzisa izimpawu ezenzelwe ukuvikela abantu abalimele be-laser radiation. Bekusebenza emikhiqizweni ye-laser nezindawo lapho kukhiqizwa khona imikhiqizo ye-laser, esetshenziswa, futhi yagcinwa. Leli Zinga laliqaliswa ngoJuni 1, 2001, kepha selidluliselwe ngaphezulu kwe-GB 2894-2008, "izibonakaliso zokuphepha kanye nenkombandlela yokusebenzisa," kusukela ngo-Okthoba 1, 2009(Ikhodi yeChina) (Openstd) (Umntu antuIsihlehlukene.
Ukuhlukaniswa kwama-lasers okulimazayo
Ama-lasers ahlukaniswa ngokusekelwe ekulimaleni kwawo okungaba khona kwamehlo nasosikhumba. Ama-lasers aphezulu aphezulu e-High-Power akhipha imisebe engabonakali (kufaka phakathi ama-leconductor lasers kanye nama-CO2 Lasers) abeka izingozi ezibalulekile. Amazinga okuphepha ahlukanisa zonke izinhlelo ze-laser, ngei-fiber laserImiphumela evame ukukalwa njenge-Class 4, ekhombisa izinga lobungozi obukhulu kakhulu. Okuqukethwe okulandelayo, sizoxoxa ngezigaba zokuphepha ze-laser kusuka ekilasini 1 kuya ekilasini 4.
Umkhiqizo we-Laser 1 weklasi
Ikilasi le-1 laser libhekwa njengeliphephile ukuze wonke umuntu asebenzise futhi abheke ezimweni ezijwayelekile. Lokhu kusho ukuthi ngeke ulimele ngokubheka i-laser enjalo ngqo noma ngamathuluzi ajwayelekile akhulisa njenge-telescopes noma ama-microscopes. Amazinga okuphepha ahlola lokhu ngokusebenzisa imithetho ethile mayelana nokuthi iyiphi inkululo indawo yokukhanya ye-laser nokuthi kufanele ube kude kangakanani ukuze ubheke ngokuphephile. Kepha, kubalulekile ukwazi ukuthi amanye ama-lasers angu-1 ama-lasers angaba yingozi uma ubabuka ngokusebenzisa izibuko ezikhulisa kakhulu ngoba lokhu kungabutha ukukhanya kwe-laser kunokujwayelekile. Kwesinye isikhathi, imikhiqizo efana nabadlali be-CD noma i-DVD ibhalwe njenge-CLASS 1 ngoba ine-laser enamandla ngaphakathi, kepha yenziwe ngendlela okungekho ukukhanya okulimazayo okungaphuma ngesikhathi sokusetshenziswa okujwayelekile.
Ikilasi lethu le-1 laser:I-Erbium Droped Glass Laser, I-L1535 RangeFinder module
Umkhiqizo we-Laser we-Class 1m
I-Laser ye-Class 1m ngokuvamile iphephile futhi ngeke ilimaze amehlo akho ngaphansi kokusetshenziswa okujwayelekile, okusho ukuthi ungayisebenzisa ngaphandle kokuvikelwa okukhethekile. Kodwa-ke, lolu shintsho uma usebenzisa amathuluzi anjengeMicroscopes noma ama-telescopes ukubheka i-laser. Lawa mathuluzi angagxila ugongolo lwe-laser futhi akwenze kube namandla kunalokho okubhekwa njengokuphephile. Ama-Lasers we-Class 1m anemishayo ebanzi kakhulu noma esakazwa. Imvamisa, ukukhanya okuvela kwalawa ama-lasers akudluleli ngalé kwamazinga aphephile uma kungena iso lakho ngqo. Kepha uma usebenzisa ukukhulisa i-Optics, bangabutha ukukhanya okwengeziwe esweni lakho, ngokungenza ingozi. Ngakho-ke, ngenkathi ukukhanya okuqondile kweklasi 1m
Umkhiqizo we-Class 2 Laser
I-Class 2 Laser iphephile ukuthi isetshenziswe ngoba isebenza ngendlela yokuthi uma othile ebheka ngephutha e-laser, ukusabela kwawo okungokwemvelo ukuqubuka noma ukubheka kude nezibani ezikhanyayo zizobavikela. Le ndlela yokuvikela isebenzela ukudalulwa kwemizuzwana engu-0.25. Lawa ma-lasers asendaweni ebonakalayo kuphela, ephakathi kwama-nanometer angama-400 no-700 e-wavelength. Banomkhawulo wamandla we-1 milliwatt (MW) uma bekhanyisa ngokuqhubekayo. Bangaba namandla amakhulu uma bekhipha ukukhanya kwemizuzwana engaphansi kwe-0.25 ngesikhathi noma uma ukukhanya kwabo kungagxili. Kodwa-ke, ukugwema ngamabomu ukufiphala noma ukubheka kude ne-laser kungaholela ekulimaleni kwamehlo. Amathuluzi afana nezinye izikhombisi ze-laser namadivayisi wokulinganisa amabanga asebenzisa ama-class 2 lasers.
Umkhiqizo we-Laser we-Class 2m
I-Laser yeklasi 2m ngokuvamile ithathwa ephephile ngamehlo akho ngenxa yemvelo yakho ye-Blink Reflex, ekusiza ukugwema ukubheka amalambu akhanyayo isikhathi eside. Lolu hlobo lwe-laser, olufana neklasi 1m, lukhanyisa ukukhanya okubanzi kakhulu noma kusakazeka ngokushesha, kunciphisa inani lokukhanya kwe-laser elingena emazingeni aphephile, ngokusho kwamazinga 2 amazinga. Kodwa-ke, lokhu kuphepha kusebenza kuphela uma ungasebenzisi noma yimaphi amadivaysi abonakalayo afana nokukhulisa izibuko noma ama-telescopes ukubuka i-laser. Uma usebenzisa izinsimbi ezinjalo, zingagxila ekukhanyeni kwe-laser futhi zingakhulisa ubungozi emehlweni akho.
Umkhiqizo we-Class 3r Laser
I-Laser ye-Class 3R idinga ukuphatha ngokucophelela ngoba ngenkathi iphephile ngokuqondile, ibukeka ngqo emgodini kungaba yingozi. Lolu hlobo lwe-laser lungakhipha ukukhanya okwengeziwe kunokuba lubhekwa luphephile ngokuphelele, kepha ithuba lokulimala lisethathwa njengephansi uma uqaphela. Kwama-lasers ongawabona (ku-spectrum ebonakalayo ebonakalayo), ama-lases 3r ama-lasers akhawulelwe ekukhishweni kwamandla okuphezulu kwama-milliwatts (MW) aphezulu. Kunemikhawulo ehlukene yokuphepha yama-lasers akwamanye ama-wavelths kanye nama-lasers agcwele, angavumela ukuphuma okuphezulu ngaphansi kwemibandela ethile. Isihluthulelo sokusebenzisa i-Class 3r Laser ngokuphepha ukugwema ukubuka ugongolo ngokuqondile futhi ukulandela noma yimiphi imiyalo yezokuphepha enikeziwe.
Umkhiqizo we-Class 3b Laser
I-Laser ye-Class 3b ingaba yingozi uma ishaya ngokuqondile iso, kepha uma i-laser ikhanye ihlathina nezindawo ezinzima njengephepha, alikubi. Kuma-lasers aqhubekayo we-leam asebenza ebangeni elithile (kusuka kuma-nanometer angama-315 afinyelela ku-infrared ede), amandla aphezulu avunyelwe anengxenye ye-watt (0.5 W). Okwe-lasers eshayelwa futhi kuvaliwe ebangeni elibonakalayo lokukhanya (ama-400 kuya kwangama-700 ama-nanometers), akufanele adlule ama-millijoules angama-30 (MJ) ngokushaya ngamandla. Imithetho ehlukene ikhona ama-lasers ezinye izinhlobo futhi ama-pulses amafushane kakhulu. Lapho usebenzisa i-Class 3B Laser, imvamisa udinga ukugqoka izibuko zokuvikela ukuze amehlo akho aphephile. Lawa ama-lasers nawo kufanele abe nokushintshwa kokhiye kanye nokhiye wokuphepha ukuvikela ukusetshenziswa ngengozi. Noma kutholakala ama-Class 3B Lasers kumadivayisi afana nababhali be-CD nabakwa-DVD, la madivayisi abhekwa njenge-Class 1 ngoba i-laser itholakala ngaphakathi futhi ingaphunyuke.
Umkhiqizo we-Class 4 Laser
Ama-lasers ama-Class 4 aluhlobo olunamandla kakhulu futhi oluyingozi. Banamandla kunama-lasers e-Class 3b futhi kungadala ukulimala okukhulu okufana nesikhumba esivuthayo noma kubangele ukulimala kwamehlo okuphakade kunoma yikuphi ukuvezwa kogongolo, noma kuboniswe, noma kuhlakazekile. Lawa ama-lasers angaqala ngisho nemililo uma eshaya okuthile okuvuthayo. Ngenxa yalezi zingozi, ama-lases ama-lasers ama-4 adinga izici eziqinile zokuphepha, kufaka phakathi ukushintshwa kokhiye kanye nokhiye wokuphepha. Zivame ukusetshenziswa ezimweni zezimboni, zesayensi, zezempi kanye nakwezokwelashwa. Kwama-Lasers ezokwelapha, kubalulekile ukuba wazi amabanga okuphepha nezindawo zokugwema izingozi zamehlo. Kudingeka izinyathelo zokuphepha ezengeziwe ukuphatha nokulawula ugongolo ukuvikela izingozi.
Faka ilebula isibonelo se-fiber laser edonswayo kusuka ku-lumuspot
Ungazivikela kanjani ezingozini ze-laser
Nansi incazelo elula yendlela yokuvikela kahle ezingozini ze-laser, ezihlelwe yizindima ezihlukile:
Abakhiqizi be-laser:
Akufanele anikeze amadivaysi e-laser kuphela (njenge-laser cutters, ama-welders we-handheld, nemishini yokumaka) kodwa futhi namagiya okuphepha abalulekile anjenge-goggles, izimpawu zokuphepha, imiyalo yokusetshenziswa okuphephile, kanye nezinto zokwakha ukuphepha. Kuyingxenye yesibopho sabo sokuqinisekisa ukuthi abasebenzisi baphephile futhi banolwazi.
Okokuhlanganisa:
Izindlu ezivikelekile namakamelo okuphepha kwama-laser: Yonke insiza ye-laser kumele ibe nezindlu zokuvikela ukuvikela abantu ukuthi bavezwe ngemisebe ye-laser eyingozi.
I-Barriers and Safety Interlocks: Amadivayisi kufanele abe nezithiyo nokuphepha kokuphepha ukuvimbela ukuvezwa kumazinga we-laser ayingozi.
Izilawuli ezibalulekile: Amasistimu ahlukaniswe njenge-Class 3B kanye ne-4 kufanele abe nezilawuli ezibalulekile ukukhawula ukufinyelela nokusebenzisa, ukuqinisekisa ukuphepha.
Abasebenzisi bokugcina:
Ukuphathwa: Ama-lasers kufanele asebenze ngochwepheshe abaqeqeshiwe kuphela. Abasebenzi abangafundile akufanele bawasebenzise.
Ukushintshwa okuyisihluthulelo: Faka ukhiye wokushintshwa kumadivayisi we-laser ukuqinisekisa ukuthi angasebenza kuphela ngokhiye, okwandayo ukuphepha.
Ukukhanyisa nokubekwa: Qinisekisa ukuthi amakamelo ama-lasers anokukhanya okukhanyayo nokuthi ama-lasers abekwe ezindaweni eziphakeme kanye nama-engeli agwema ukuvezwa kwamehlo okuqondile.
Ukuqashwa Kwezokwelapha:
Abasebenzi basebenzisa ikilasi 3B kanye nama-4 ama-lasers kufanele abe nokuhlolwa okujwayelekile kwezokwelapha ngabasebenzi abaqeqeshiwe ukuqinisekisa ukuphepha kwabo.
Ukuphepha kwe-LaserUkuqeqeshwa:
Ama-opharetha kufanele aqeqeshwe ekusebenzeni kohlelo lwe-laser, ukuvikelwa komuntu, izinqubo zokulawula ingozi, ukusetshenziswa kwezimpawu eziyisixwayiso, ukubikwa kwezigameko, nokuqonda imiphumela yemvelo yama-lasers anamehlo nesikhumba.
Izindlela zokulawula:
Lawula ngokuqinile ukusetshenziswa kwama-lasers, ikakhulukazi ezindaweni lapho abantu bekhona, ukugwema ukubonakala ngengozi, ikakhulukazi emehlweni.
Xwayisa abantu endaweni ngaphambi kokusebenzisa ama-lasers anamandla amakhulu bese uqinisekisa ukuthi wonke umuntu ugqoka amehlo amehlo avikela.
Thumela izimpawu eziyisixwayiso ngaphakathi nasezindaweni ezizungeze umsebenzi we-laser kanye nokungena ukukhombisa ukuba khona kwezingozi ze-laser.
Izindawo ezilawulwa ze-laser:
Khawula ukusetshenziswa kwe-laser ezindaweni ezithile ezihlukile, ezilawulwayo.
Sebenzisa onogada bomnyango nokuvikelwa kokuphepha ukuvimbela ukufinyelela okungagunyaziwe, ukuqinisekisa ukuthi ama-lasers ayeke ukusebenza uma iminyango ivulwa ngokungalindelekile.
Gwema izindawo ezibonakalayo eziseduzane nama-lasers ukuvikela izinkambiso ze-beam ezingalimaza abantu.
Ukusetshenziswa Kwezexwayiso Nezimpawu Zokuphepha:
Beka izimpawu eziyisixwayiso kumaphaneli angaphandle nangaphandle kwemishini ye-laser ukukhombisa izingozi ezingaba khona ngokucacile.
Amalebula okuphephaNgemikhiqizo ye-Laser:
1. Wonke amadivaysi e-laser kumele abe namalebula okuphepha akhombisa izexwayiso, ukuhlukaniswa kwemisebe, nalapho kuphuma khona imisebe.
I-2.Labels kufanele ibekwe lapho ibonwa kalula ngaphandle kokuvezwa ngemisebe ye-laser.
Gqoka izingilazi zokuphepha ze-laser ukuvikela amehlo akho e-laser
Izisetshenziswa Zokuvikelwa Komuntu (i-PPE) zokuphepha kwe-laser zisetshenziswa njengendlela yokugcina lapho izilawuli zobunjiniyela nokuphatha zingakwazi ukunciphisa ngokuphelele izingozi. Lokhu kufaka phakathi izingilazi zokuphepha ze-laser nezingubo:
Izibuko ze-Laser zokuphepha zivikela amehlo akho ngokunciphisa imisebe ye-laser. Kufanele bahlangabezane nezimfuneko eziqinile:
Kuqinisekiswe futhi kufakwe ilebula ngokuya ngamazinga kazwelonke.
Ilungele uhlobo lwe-laser's, i-wavelthth, imodi yokusebenza (eqhubekayo noma i-pulsed), kanye nezilungiselelo zamandla.
Kumakwe kahle ukusiza ukusiza ukukhetha izibuko ezifanele ze-laser ethile.
Ifreyimu kanye nezihlangu eziseceleni kufanele nazo zivikeleke.
Kubalulekile ukusebenzisa uhlobo olufanele lwezingilazi zokuphepha ukuvikela ngokumelene ne-laser ethile oyisebenzayo, ecabanga ngezimpawu zayo kanye nemvelo okuyo.
Ngemuva kokusebenzisa izindlela zokuphepha, uma amehlo akho asakwazi ukuvezwa ngemisebe ye-laser ngenhla kwemikhawulo ephephile, udinga ukusebenzisa izingilazi zokuvikela ezihambelana ne-wavelth ye-laser futhi ube nobunzima obufanele bokubona ukuze bavikele amehlo akho.
Musa ukuthembela kuphela ezingilazini zokuphepha; Ungalokothi ubukeke ngqo emgodini we-laser ngisho nalapho ugqoke.
Ukukhetha izingubo zokuvikela ama-laser:
Nikeza izingubo ezifanele zokuvikela ezisebenzi ezivezwe ngemisebe ngenhla kwezinga eliphakeme elivunyelwe (i-MPE) lesikhumba; Lokhu kusiza ukunciphisa ukuvezwa kwesikhumba.
Izingubo kufanele zenziwe ngezinto ezisetshenziswayo ezivimbela umlilo nokuvimbela ukushisa.
Ihlose ukumboza isikhumba esiningi ngangokunokwenzeka ngegiya lokuvikela.
Ungasivikela kanjani isikhumba sakho ekulimaleni kwe-laser:
Gqoka izingubo zomsebenzi ezinemikhono emide eyenziwe ngezinto zokwakha amalangabi.
Ezindaweni ezilawulwa ukusetshenziswa kwe-laser, faka amakhethini namaphaneli wokuvimba ukukhanya okwenziwe ngezinto zokwakha amalangabi ezihlanganiswe ngezinto ezimnyama noma eziluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka ukudonsa imisebe ye-UV futhi uvikele ukukhanya kwemisebe ye-laser.
Kubalulekile ukukhetha imishini efanelekile yokuzivikela (i-PPE) futhi uyisebenzise kahle ukuqinisekisa ukuphepha lapho usebenza noma uzungeze ama-lasers noma azungeze ama-lasers. Lokhu kufaka ukuqonda izingozi ezithile ezihambisana nezinhlobo ezahlukene zama-lasers nokuthatha amaphuzuIzindlela zokuphepha ezinamandla ukuvikela womabili amehlo nesikhumba kusuka ekulimaleni okungaba khona.
Isiphetho kanye Nokufingqa
Ukuzikhulula:
- Ngale ndlela simemezela ukuthi ezinye zezithombe eziboniswe kuwebhusayithi yethu ziqoqwe kwi-Intanethi naseWikipedia, ngenhloso yokuthuthukisa ezemfundo nokwabelana ngolwazi. Sihlonipha amalungelo obunikazi bempahla yabo bonke abadali. Ukusetshenziswa kwalezi zithombe akuhloselwe inzuzo yezentengiso.
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Isikhathi Sokuthumela: APR-08-2024